Machiavelli's Ideals

1) Soon after the Savonarola regime fell, one of the first to lose their jobs was Braccessi. Machiavelli replaced his post as the second chancellor of the Florentine republic as the republic of Florence sought to fill the most prestigious seats in the city government with humanists. Soon after this regime fell, Machiavelli was accused of contributing to anti-Medici sentiment. He was tortured but maintained his innocence and was eventually freed, exiled to a location outside of the central city. As Cicero believed, the most important values in society involved a willingness to subordinate private interests to the public good and to fight against tyranny. It is important to note that the central city was where politics ruled the public sphere and that Machiavelli was completely excluded from this in “isolation” (although he was not alone). From this state of “solitude” Machiavelli moved back into a state of contemplation, and began writing The Prince, during which time he wrote a letter to Francesco Vettori:

When evening comes, I return to my home, and I go into my study; and on the threshold, I take off my everyday clothes, which are covered with mud and mire, and I put on regal and curial robes, and dressed in a more appropriate manner I enter into the ancient courts of ancient men and am welcomed by them kindly, and there I taste the food that alone is mine, and for which I was born; and there I am not ashamed to speak to them, to ask them the reasons for their actions; and they, in their humanity, answer me; and for four hours I feel no boredom, I dismiss every affliction, I no longer feel poverty nor do I tremble at the thought of death; I become completely part of them. And as Dante says that knowledge does not exist without the retention of it by memory, I have noted down what I have learned from their conversation, and I composed a little work, De principatibus, where I delve as deeply as I can into the thoughts on this subject, discussing what a principality is, what kinds there are, how they are acquired, how they are maintained, why they are lost.

In this passage Machiavelli refers to his exile. He was comforted by ancient classic texts but in reality was tormented by his inability to return to a life of active participation in politics. He hoped he could produce work, relying on knowledge of the classics and eloquence, that would prove beneficial to the Medici and in return would award him a political position in the regime. An inconsistency of virtu and fortuna is the cause of Machiavelli's exile.

Machiavelli's exile can be explained in terms of virtu and fortuna. He describes fortuna as situations beyond human control. Virtu is the drive and energy extended towards a certain end. It is the strength, mental and physical, required to achieve success. He does not refer to virtu as virtuous behavior, although he does not necessarily exclude it either. The concepts of virtu and fortuna can work together but are not linked. A prince could apply his virtu to a situation that has much fortuna and by doing so may achieve his ends. Virtu without fortuna is useless because uncontrollable negative circumstances cannot be reversed by human action. Fortuna without virtu, likewise, is a waste of favorable circumstances on a person who cannot act accordingly. So, despite the ability of these forces to operate independently, success can only come from both.

Machiavelli did not view his fate of exile as his own fault but rather a lack of positive fortuna. He would not have viewed his virtu as the cause because he made attempts to regain his social status through writing The Prince. Although he believed in republicanism, he wrote The Prince to win the favor of the Medici. In this book he explains how a sovereign can achieve and maintain power. It was written through a realist perspective that was criticized by many as cruel and as portraying a negative image of human nature. According to Machiavelli, the failure of this attempt to re-enter the active life must have been because of a lack in either virtu, fortuna, or both.

2) Civic humanism during the Italian Renaissance represented the city of man, as opposed to the Augustinian city of god. Machiavelli's civic humanism referred to living the active life including civic involvement in the state (particularly the army), shifting away the contemplative life (although philosophy and the arts were stressed as necessary education). By the middle of the fourteenth century, civic humanism flourished in Florence, as they sought to emulate the republicanism of ancient Rome. Machiavelli's republicanism owes the ideas of citizen militias and the importance of leading an active political life to civic humanism.

The Discourses promote the benefits of a republic through an empirical analysis of Livy's work on Roman history. Machiavelli wrote this book as a private text, not to be viewed by the Medici regime because it would be viewed as treason. As a realist, Machiavelli believed there are unchanging truths that we can apply to history in an attempt to learn more about ourselves and human nature in general. These realist motives are clarified by his emphasis on data as opposed to abstract philosophy. Like Da Vinci, he was a humanist who observed and described human nature in a “scientific” manner. Humanism in Florence was one of human achievement as Petrarch, Brunelleschi, Masaccio, Donatello, and others produced works that emphasized human originality and the freedom of the mind.

Machiavelli borrows many of his concepts of republicanism from the ancient Roman model, stating that citizens should elect their own representatives, free from tyranny. Through this they will embrace civic humanism and particularly patriotism which is of utmost importance. Patriotism ensures that one will sacrifice his life for his state. Liberty is the highest virtue in a republic; it can most easily be maintained through an effective protection of the city-state by the citizen.

The most important role of the citizen is to be a soldier. Machiavelli's opinion reflecting the use of mercenary soldiers is clarified in The Prince. Based on history, mercenary soldiers have proven dangerous and should not be used as a means of protection. Mercenary soldiers fight for money, which is not a sufficient rational for potential death. During an attack they are cowardly and can easily be converted to the opposing force if the price is right. Meanwhile, an army consisting of citizens creates a legitimate obligation to protect

...