Virtue Of Aquinas And Machiavelli

The Virtue of Thomas Aquinas and Machiavelli

An investigation and exposition

The author's goal in this essay is to evaluate the definition of virtue according to Aquinas and compare/contrast that with Machiavellian virtue. Following this evaluation the author will attempt to discredit Machiavellian virtue as being shallow and impossible. Relying on question 55 from the Summa Theologiae and various chapters from The Prince, the author hopes to lay a solid and concrete argument against Machiavelli.

It is insufficient to write of Aquinas without first mentioning Aristotle and the relationship Thomas Aquinas had with his work. Aristotle writes at great length of the human good. The good for man, according to Aristotle, is an active use of those faculties which separate man from the rest of nature, namely reason and will, which are distinct from lower faculties such as feeling or reaction. One principle that deeply influenced Aquinas was Aristotle's theory that the moral virtues are each an average of two opposing human traits (which is how the average person gauges morals today whether they are conscious of it or not). Courage is found between cowardice and rashness, generosity between stinginess and prodigality.

The highest good for Aristotle is found in the contemplation of truth, he believed this was the highest part of man's nature; that it was so because of its reliance on man's intellect and reason. Thomas Aquinas took the contemplation of truth a magnificent step further by postulating man, through seeking his ultimate end, as participating in the very nature of God. For Aquinas this participation is the state of Grace. A person in the state of Grace possesses certain powers, these are referred to as virtues. More specifically they are infused virtues that can be separated into two distinct kinds: Theological virtues and Moral (or Cardinal) virtues. Before delving too deeply into the specifics of these virtues it is important to establish some ground work.

Thomas Aquinas defines virtue as "a good habit bearing on activity". We can also relate this definition to a good faculty, namely habit. Intrinsic to the concept of virtue is habit. Habit according to Thomas can be within the natural order or elevated to the Divine by Grace. Habits are seen as "stable dispositions", or qualities, that guide the faculties to act a certain way. Habits can be infused or acquired depending on the faculty. Of course not every habit is a virtue but only one that guides a faculty, through the use of reason, toward the good; the good being the Ultimate end or the Beatific Vision which awaits us when our life here on earth is over.

Aquinas makes a key point about virtues. The key point made is between what Aquinas refers to as the infused virtues (those which are God given and work in us without interference from the faculties of man) and the acquired habits. When these acquired good habits become regular practice for us we call them our "second nature". Our second nature leads our actions to perfection. Elemental and absolutely necessary for the development of our second nature are reason and will, our intellect.

The infused virtues, on the other hand, are a gift from God and are thus called supernatural because they transcend reason and will; they are gifts which we can not freely acquire or operate. Among these infused gift virtues are two kinds: the first are the Theological virtues (Faith, Hope, and Charity) which are concerned directly with God and our ultimate end, which are unaided by reason. The theological virtues supply man with the love of God and teach us His will.

The second and lesser of the infused virtues are the moral virtues. The moral virtues are concerned with human action and not with God himself. More specifically they are concerned with human conduct. The four moral virtues (which are also called Cardinal virtues) are Prudence, Fortitude, Temperance, and Justice. Where the Theological virtues are tied into the supernatural, the Cardinal virtues are associated with the natural world. Among the four Prudence is the highest because it is linked with reason. The principle act of Prudence is the execution of right or good reason, Prudence guides our reason. Examples of this are good judgment and the ability to deal with the unexpected in a good way. Fortitude is concerned with the ability to deal with what is painful or unpleasant. Temperance is associated with the urges and cravings for what is pleasurable and finally Justice towards the will of people.

Emphasis must be made on the fundamental difference between the two types of virtues. Theological virtues (dealing with the supernatural) and Cardinal virtues (concerned with the natural). A moral virtue by definition avoids extremes by way of the use of human reason, the theological virtues transcend reason. The supernatural and natural virtues are interconnected as Aquinas explains: "Grace (the supernatural) does not destroy but builds upon nature". Ultimately mortal man's faculties can be described as having reason which is enlightened by faith; this elevates man into infinitely higher plains than other creatures.

After sufficient discourse and explanation about Aquinas and virtue we come to a crossroads. Some four hundred years later a new thought emerges with the deep and fractured (some would say deeply fractured) mind of Machiavelli, a man who continues to offer so much too so many slimey politicians across the globe. Machiavelli and his view on the human condition and more specifically human virtue in terms of the political man is the second section of our investigation.

Prior to Machiavelli the view of a political leader (or Prince, as referred to by Machiavelli) was much different than his own interpretation. A Prince and his roles in regards to political authority were viewed as rightful only if the exercising ruler had a strong moral character and was a virtuous person. A ruler was viewed as doing well only when he sought the good. Rulers had to earn the right to be obeyed and respected.

This view of a ruler is called a "moralistic authority" and is precisely what Machiavelli criticizes in his work titled The Prince. In writing The Prince, Machiavelli sought to extinguish then current views (or at least introduce a radically different view) of political authority. Machiavelli preached that there is no moral basis on which to judge the difference between correct or illegitimate uses of power. Rather, whoever has power has the right to command; since goodness does not ensure power and the good person has no more authority simply because he is good. Goodness or morality is ineffectual in the acquisition and maintenance

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